Brook_Farm

Brook Farm
(U.S. National Historic Landmark)

Location:	670 Baker Street, Boston, Massachusetts
Coordinates:	42°17′28.90″N 71°10′26.71″W / 42.2913611, -71.1740861Coordinates: 42°17′28.90″N 71°10′26.71″W / 42.2913611, -71.1740861
Built/Founded:	1841
Architect:	Brook Farm Community
Architectural style(s):	No Style Listed
Designated as NHL:	July 23, 1965
Added to NRHP:	October 15, 1966
NRHP Reference#:	66000141 ¹
Governing body:	Private

Brook Farm was a transcendentalist Utopian experiment in communal living in the 1840s. It was founded by transcendentalist and former Unitarian minister George Ripley and his wife Sophia Ripley at the Ellis Farm in West Roxbury, Massachusetts in 1841. The joint stock company promised its participants a portion of the profits from the farm in exchange for performing an equal share of the work. Brook Farmers believed that by sharing the workload, ample time would be available for leisure activities and intellectual pursuits.

By 1844, the Brook Farmers adopted a societal model based on the socialist concepts of Charles Fourier and began publishing The Harbinger as an unofficial journal promoting Fourierism. Following his vision, the community members began building an ambitious structure called the Phalanstery. When the uninsured building was destroyed in a fire, the community was financially devastated and never recovered. It was fully closed by 1847. Despite the experiment's failure, many Brook Farmers looked back on their experience positively. Even so, critics included Charles Lane, founder of another utopian community called Fruitlands. Nathaniel Hawthorne had been a founding member of Brook Farm, though he did not strongly believe in the community's ideals. He later fictionalized his experience in his novel The Blithedale Romance (1852).

History

Planning and background

In October 1840 George Ripley announced to the Transcendental Club that he was planning to form a Utopian community.² Brook Farm, as it would be called, based on the ideals of Transcendentalism; its founders believed that by pooling labor they could sustain the community and still have time for literary and scientific pursuits.³ The experiment meant to serve as an example for the rest of the world, based on the principles of "industry without drudgery, and true equality without its vulgarity".⁴ At Brook Farm, and as in other communities, physical labor was perceived as a condition of mental well-being and health. Brook Farm was one of about 84 communal experiments active throughout the 1840s, though it was the first to be secular.⁵

Beginnings

Ripley and his wife Sophia formed a joint stock company in 1841 along with 10 other initial investors.³ Shares of the company were sold for $500 apiece with a promise of five percent of the profits to each investor.² The Ripleys chose to begin their experiment at a dairy farm owned by Charles and Maria Mayo Ellis in West Roxbury, Massachusetts, near the home of Theodore Parker.⁶ The site was purchased on October 11, 1841, for $10,500.⁷ The 170-acre farm about eight miles from Boston was described in a pamphlet as a "place of great natural beauty, combining a convenient nearness to the city with a degree of retirement and freedom from unfavorable influences unusual even in the country".⁶ The purchase also covered a neighboring Keith farm, approximately 22 acres, "consisting altogether of a farm with dwelling house, barn, and outbuildings thereon situated".⁷ In all, 32 men eventually joined the start-up community, including Nathaniel Hawthorne,³ as well as many unmarried women.⁸ Margaret Fuller was invited to Brook Farm⁹ and, though she never officially joined the community, she was a frequent visitor, often spending New Year's Eve there.¹⁰

Hawthorne did not particularly agree with the ideals of the experiment, believing only that it would help him raise enough money to begin his life with his wife-to-be Sophia Peabody.⁴ Ripley was aware of this, and tried to convince Hawthorne to get involved more fully by appointing him as one of four trustees, specifically overseeing "Direction of Finance".⁷ After requesting his initial investment be returned, Hawthorne officially resigned from Brook Farm on October 17, 1842.¹¹

Fourier inspiration

In the late 1830s Ripley became increasingly engaged in "Associationism", an early socialist movement based on the work of Charles Fourier. Horace Greeley, a New York newspaper editor, and others began to pressure the Brook Farm experiment to follow more closely the pattern of Charles Fourier.¹² Albert Brisbane, whose book The Social Destiny of Man (1840) had been an inspiration to Ripley, paid Greeley $500 for permission to publish a front-page column in the New York Tribune which ran in several parts from March 1842 to September 1843. Brisbane argued in the series, titled "Association: or, Principles of a True Organization of Society", how Fourier's theories could be applied in the United States.¹³ Brisbane published similar articles in 1842 in The Dial, the journal of the Transcendentalists.¹⁴ Fourier's societal vision included elaborate plans for specific structures and highly-organized roles of its members.¹² He called this system for an ideal community a "Phalanx".¹⁵

To meet this vision, Brook Farmers committed themselves to constructing an ambitious communal building known as the Phalanstery. Construction began in the summer of 1844 and the structure would provide accommodations for 14 families and single people as well.¹⁶ It was planned to be 175 feet by 40 feet and include, as Ripley described, "a large and commodious kitchen, a dining-hall capable of seating from three to four hundred persons, two public saloons, and a spacious hall or lecture room".¹⁷

Ripley and two associates created a new constitution for Brook Farm in 1844, beginning the experiment's attempts to closely follow Fourier's Phalanx system.¹⁸ Many Brook Farmers supported the transition; at a dinner in honor of Fourier's birthday, one member of the group proposed a toast to "Fourier, the second coming of Christ".¹⁹ Others, however, were less enthusiastic and some left the commune altogether. Both supporters and detractors referred to the early part of Brook Farm's history the "Transcendental days".¹⁹

In the last few months of 1844, Brook Farmers were offered the possibility of taking over two Associationism-inspired publications, Brisbane's The Phalanx and John Allen's The Social Reformer. Four printers were part of Brook Farm at the time and members of the community believed it would elevate their status as leaders of the movement as well as provide additional income.²⁰ Ultimately, the Brook Farmers published a new journal combining the two, The Harbinger.¹⁶ The journal's first issue was published June 14, 1845, and was continuously printed, originally weekly, until October 1847, when it was relocated to New York City, still under the oversight of George Ripley and fellow Brook Farmer Charles Anderson Dana.²¹ Naming the publication, however, turned out to be a difficult task. Parke Godwin offered advice when it was suggested to keep the name The Phalanx:

Decline and dissolution

Brook Farm began to decline rapidly after its restructuring. In October 1844, Orestes Brownson visited the site and sensed that "the atmosphere of the place is horrible".²³ "Retrenchments", or sacrifices, at the dinner table in particular were called for.²⁴ Meat, coffee, tea, and butter were no longer offered, though it was agreed that a separate table with meat be allowed in December 1844.²³ That Thanksgiving, a neighbor had donated a turkey.¹⁶ Many Brook Farmers applied for exceptions to these rules and soon it was agreed that "members of the Association who sit at the meat table shall be charged extra for their board".²⁵

Construction on the Phalanstery was progressing well¹⁶ until the evening of March 3, 1846, when it was discovered the Phalanstery had caught fire. Within two hours, the structure was completely burned down;²⁶ firefighters from Boston arrived too late. The financial blow from the loss of the uninsured building was $7,000 and it marked the beginning of the end of Brook Farm.²⁷

George Ripley, who had begun the experiment, made an unofficial break with Brook Farm in May 1846.²⁸ Many others began to leave as well, though the dissolution of the farm was slow. As one Brook Farmer said, the slow decline of the community was like apple petals drifting slowly to the ground, making it seem "dreamy and unreal".²⁷ On November 5, 1846, Ripley's book collection, which had served as Brook Farm's library was auctioned to help cover the association's debts. Ripley told a friend, "I can now understand how a man would feel if he could attend his own funeral".²⁹

Today, part of the land on which Brook Farm stood is a nature reserve and part is used by the Baker Street Jewish Cemeteries.

Landscape and facilities

Brook Farm was named for the brook that ran near the roadside and that eventually went to the Charles River.³⁰ It was surrounded by low hills and its meadows and sunny slopes were diversified by orchard, quiet groves and denser pine woods. The land, however, turned out to be difficult to farm.³¹

The land on the Keith lot that was purchased along with the Ellis farm included a functional farmhouse, which Brook Farmers immediately began calling "The Hive".⁷ The Hive became the center for social activities and was where the people of the community went to eat three meals a day.

As the community grew, it became necessary to add more buildings for lodgings and various activities. The first building constructed was "The Nest", where school lessons took place and where guests of the farm would stay. Mr. and Mrs. Ripley's house, later to be called the Eyrie, was built during the second year. The next building to be built was Margaret Fuller's cottage. Her home, complete with three pianos, was used by Mr. Dana and other music teachers. The last building constructed was called the Plymouth house and was used for boarding pupils.³² The many constructions, including greenhouses and small craft shops, quickly reduced their treasury.³¹

Life at Brook Farm

Many in the community wrote of how much they enjoyed their experience. One participant, a man named John Codman, joined the community at the age of 27 in 1843. He wrote, "It was for the meanest a life above humdrum, and for the greatest something far, infinitely far beyond. They looked into the gates of life and saw beyond charming visions, and hopes springing up for all".³³ Hawthorne, eventually elected treasurer of the community, did not enjoy his experience. He wrote to his wife-to-be Sophia Peabody, "labor is the curse of the world, and nobody can meddle with it without becoming proportionately brutified".³⁴

Visitors to Brook Farm came frequently, totaling an estimate 1,150 each year, though each was charged for their visit. Between November 1844 and October 1845, surviving records show that $425 was collected from visitor fees.³⁵ The list of visitors included theologian Henry James, Sr., sculptor William Wetmore Story, artist John Sartain, and British social reformer Robert Owen.³⁶

Education

Once Brook Farm was purchased, the first six months were spent getting set up. The school was a matter of particular importance, and Mrs. Ripley was in charge of it. On September 29, 1841, the “Brook Farm Institute of Agriculture and Education” was organized. The school was the most immediate (and at times the only) source of income for Brook Farm. They charged a pupil four dollars per week for room, board, and instruction. Every pupil and member of the community was to do one to four hours a day of manual labor on the farm. This work was always deducted from their bills.

When entering the school, each pupil under high school age was assigned a woman of the community who was in charge of his/her wardrobe, personal habits, and exercise.³⁷ The main teachers at the school were Mr. and Mrs. Ripley, Mr. Dwight, and Mr. Dana. Mr. Ripley was in charge of teaching English and was known to be relaxed in his class. Mr. Dana, who could communicate in ten different tongues, was in charge of teaching languages. Mr. Dwight taught music and was quite an attraction for pupils enrolling in the school.³⁸ Pupils studied European languages and literature. At no extra cost, pupils could also indulge in the fine arts.³⁷

Within the school there was an infant school for children under six, a primary school for children under ten, and there was a preparatory school that prepared children for college in just six years. If anyone else wanted to take classes, elective classes were available.

Leisure time

The people of Brook Farm spent most of their time either studying or working the farm, but they always set aside time in the day for play. In their free time, the members of Brook Farm enjoyed music, dancing, card games, drama, costume parties, sledding, and skating.³ The tableaux, in which they acted out scenes from books and plays, were the favorite of all the entertainments. Every week everyone in the community would gather at The Hive for a dance of the young ladies of the community. They would wear wreaths of wild daisies on top of their heads, and each week a special wreath, bought from a florist, would be given to the best dressed girl.³²

Women at Brook Farm

At Brook Farm, women had the opportunity to expand beyond their typical sphere of tasks and their labor was highly valued.³⁹ They did have tasks that were typical of other women at the time such as simple food preparation, and shared house keeping. However, during the harvest time women were allowed to work in the fields and men even helped out with laundry during the cold weather. One of the best things for women at Brook Farm was the fact that no single religion could impose its beliefs on the community. This kept women safe from the typical patriarchy associated with religion at the time. Women also played an important role in providing sources of income to the community. Many devoted time to making, as Brook Farmer Marianne Dwight described, "elegant and tasteful caps, capes, collars, undersleeves, etc., etc.," for sale at shops in Boston.³⁹ Women were allowed to go to school and because of the well known education of women at Brook Farm, many female writers and performers visited the farm. George Ripley’s wife Sophia was very educated and was able to teach history and foreign languages at the farm. She even wrote the essay “Woman,” which challenged the images of women created by men.

Criticism

Many outside the community were critical of Brook Farm, especially in the press. The New York Observer, for example, suggested that, "The Associationists, under the pretense of a desire to promote order and morals, design to overthrow the marriage institution, and in the place of the divine law, to substitute the 'passions' as the proper regulator of the intercourse of the sexes", concluding that they were "secretly and industriously aiming to destroy the foundation of society".⁴⁰ Critic Edgar Allan Poe expressed his opinions on the community in an article titled "Brook Farm" in the December 13, 1845, issue of the Broadway Journal. He wrote that he had "sincere respect" for the group and that its journal, The Harbinger, was "conducted by an assemblage of well-read persons who mean no harm—and who, perhaps, can do no less".⁴¹

Ralph Waldo Emerson never joined the Brook Farm community, despite several invitations. He wrote to Ripley on December 15, 1840, of his "conviction that the Community is not good for me".⁴² Charles Lane, one of the founders of another community called Fruitlands, thought the Brook Farmers lived a lifestyle that did not sacrifice enough. As he said, they were "playing away their youth and day-time in a miserably joyous frivolous manner".⁴³ Henry David Thoreau questioned the community members' idealism and wrote in his journal, "As for these communities, I think I had rather keep bachelor's hall in hell than go to board in heaven".¹²

In fiction

Nathaniel Hawthorne was a founding member of Brook Farm and presented a fictionalized portrait of it in his 1852 novel, The Blithedale Romance.⁴⁴ He acknowledged the resemblance in his introduction, saying "in the 'Blithedale' of this volume, many readers will probably suspect a faint and not very faithful shadowing of Brook Farm, in West Roxbury, which (now a little more than ten years ago) was occupied and cultivated by a company of socialists." The chapter called "The Masqueraders", for example, was based on a picnic held one September to celebrate the harvest season.⁴⁵ George Ripley, who reviewed the book for the New York Tribune, said that former Brook Farmers would only notice the resemblance in the humorous parts of the story.²⁷ Some have also seen a resemblance between Margaret Fuller and Hawthorne's fictional character Zenobia.¹⁰ In the novel, a visitor—a writer like Hawthorne—finds that hard farm labor is not conducive to intellectual creativity:

In Whit Stillman's 1990 film Metropolitan, two characters at a party debate whether Brook Farm was a failure or simply "ceased to exist". One character, Charlie Black, ends the argument by saying that ceasing to exist is, to him, failure.⁴⁶

Notes

^ "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service (2007-01-23).
^ ^a ^b Packer, 133
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Hankins, 34
^ ^a ^b McFarland, 83
^ Delano, 52
^ ^a ^b Delano, 39
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Delano, 71
^ Delano, 157–158
^ Gura, 156
^ ^a ^b Blanchard, Paula. Margaret Fuller: From Transcendentalism to Revolution. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1987: 187. ISBN 0-201-10458-X
^ Delano, 97
^ ^a ^b ^c Hankins, 35
^ Packer, 155
^ Delano, 91
^ Delano, 90
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Packer, 161
^ Delano, 255
^ Packer, 157
^ ^a ^b Packer, 158
^ Delano, 190–191
^ Delano, 217
^ Delano, 222
^ ^a ^b Delano, 192
^ Packer, 160
^ Delano, 193
^ Delano, 254
^ ^a ^b ^c Packer, 162
^ Delano, 269
^ Delano, 283
^ Myerson, 299–300
^ ^a ^b Packer, 134
^ ^a ^b Myerson, 302–303
^ Packer, 135
^ McFarland, 84
^ Delano, 53
^ Delano, 54
^ ^a ^b Myerson, 82
^ Myerson, 305
^ ^a ^b Packer, 159
^ Delano, 275–276
^ Sova, Dawn B. Edgar Allan Poe: A to Z. New York: Checkmark Books, 2001: 35. ISBN 0-8160-4161-X
^ Packer, 134
^ Delano, 119
^ McFarland, 149
^ Delano, 102
^ http://www.isi.org/journals/archive/issue.aspx?id=31672594-2837-4440-92eb-d77f73fe6aed

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