A literary technique or literary device is an identifiable rule of thumb, convention or structure that is employed in literature and storytelling.
Literary techniques are important aspects of an author's style, which is one of the five elements of fiction, along with character, plot, setting and theme.
Literary devices refer to specific aspects of literature, in the sense of its universal function as an art form which expresses ideas through language, which we can recognize, identify, interpret and/or analyze. Literary devices collectively comprise the art form’s components; the means by which authors create meaning through language, and by which readers gain understanding of and appreciation for their works. They also provide a conceptual framework for comparing individual literary works to others, both within and across genres. Both literary elements and literary techniques can rightly be called literary devices.
Annotated list of literary techniques
- Anthropomorphism, a form of personification, taking human-like characteristics to both living and non-living objects.
- Author surrogate, a character who acts as the author's spokesman. Sometimes the character may intentionally or unintentionally be an idealized version of the author. A well known variation is the Mary Sue or Gary Stu (self-insertion).
- Back-story, the story "behind" or "before" the events being portrayed in the story being told; past events or background for a character that can serve to color or add additional meaning to current circumstances. Provides extra depth to the story by anchoring it to external events, real or imagined.
- Breaking the fourth wall, when the author or a character addresses the audience directly (also known as direct address). This may acknowledge to the reader or audience that what is being presented is fiction, or may seek to extend the world of the story to provide the illusion that they are included in it.
- Chekhov's gun, the insertion of an object of apparent irrelevance early on in a narrative, the purpose of which is only revealed later on in the story. See also foreshadowing and repetitive designation.
- Conceit, an extended metaphor associated with metaphysical poetry, designed to push the limits of the imagination in order to portray something indescribable.
- Defamiliarization, technique of forcing the reader to recognize common things in an unfamiliar or strange way, in order to enhance perception of the familiar.
- Deleted affair, telling of a romantic relationship, but not referred to in the current story.
- Deus ex machina (God out of the Machine), a plot device dating back to ancient Greek theater, where the primary conflict is resolved through a means that seems unrelated to the story (i.e. a God comes down out of nowhere and solves everything, saving the character from peril). In modern times, the Deus ex machina is often considered a clumsy method, to be avoided in order not to frustrate readers or viewers.
- Dramatic visualization, "the representing of an object or character with an abundance of descriptive detail, or the mimetic rendering of gestures and dialogue in such a way as to make a given scene 'visual' or imaginatively present to an audience". This technique dates back to the Arabian Nights.1
- Epic Theater, a technique popularized by 20th century playwright Bertolt Brecht, in which the audience is "alienated" or "distanced" from the emotion of the play.
- Epiphany, a literary work or section of a literary work presenting, usually symbolically, such a moment of revelation and insight.
- Epistolary novel, a novel in the form of a series of documents, usually letters exchanged between the characters. Classic examples include Pamela by Samuel Richardson (1740), The Expedition of Humphry Clinker by Tobias Smollett (1771), Les Liaisons dangereuses by Pierre Choderlos de Laclos (1782) and Dracula by Bram Stoker (1897).
- False documents, fiction written in the form of, or about, apparently real, but actually fake documents. Examples include Robert Graves's I, Claudius, a fictional autobiography of the Roman emperor, H.P. Lovecraft's Necronomicon, and the Flashman series by George MacDonald Fraser. The short stories of Jorge Luis Borges are often written as summaries or criticisms of books that in actuality do not exist.
- Fictional fictional character, a character whose fictional existence is introduced within a larger work of fiction, or a character in a story within a story. Early examples include Panchatantra and Arabian Nights. See also frame story.
- Finger Posting, where casual details are inserted so that a revelation will not seem disconnected from the story.
- Flashback (or analeptic reference), general term for altering time sequences, taking characters back to the beginning of the tale, for instance.
- A Flashforward, also called prolepsis, is an interjected scene that takes the narrative forward in time from the current point of the story. Flashforwards are often used to represent events expected, projected, or imagined to occur in the future. They may also reveal significant parts of the story that has not yet occurred, but soon will in greater detail.
- Foreshadowing, hinting at events to occur later. Giving an idea to what's going to happen in the upcoming events. See also formal patterning, repetitive designation and Chekhov's gun.
- Formal patterning, "the organization of the events, actions and gestures which constitute a narrative and give shape to a story; when done well, formal patterning allows the audience the pleasure of discerning and anticipating the structure of the plot as it unfolds". This technique dates back to the Arabian Nights,1 and is also used in Romeo and Juliet. See also foreshadowing.
- Frame story, or a story within a story, where a main story is used to organize a series of shorter stories. Early examples include Panchatantra, Arabian Nights and The Decameron. A more modern example is Brian Jacques The Legend of Luke.
- Framing device, the usage of a single action, scene, event, setting, or any element of significance at the beginning and end of a work.
- Incluing, gradually exposing the reader to background information about the world in which a story is set. The idea is to clue the readers into the world the author is building, without them being aware of it such as Brave New World. Opposite of Infodumping.
- Infodumping, (Also, plot dump) where a concentrated amount of background material is given all at once in the story, often in the form of a conversation between two characters, both of whom should already know the material under discussion. (The so-called "As you know, Bob" conversation.) Opposite of Incluing.
- In medias res, when the story begins in the middle of an intense action sequence.
- Irony, a discrepancy between expectation and reality. The three forms of irony are: situational irony, where a situation features a discrepancy between what is expected and what is actualized; dramatic irony, where a character is unaware of pivotal knowledge which has already been revealed to the audience (the discrepancy here lies in the two levels of awareness between the character and the audience); and verbal irony, where one states one thing while meaning another. Verbal irony is the lowest form of irony. The difference between verbal irony and sarcasm is exquisitely subtle and oft contested, but exists nonetheless. The concept of irony is too often misunderstood in popular usage. Unfortunate circumstances and coincidences do not constitute irony (nor do they qualify as being tragic). See the Usage controversy section under irony, and the term tragedy.
- Juxtaposition, when the author places two themes, characters, phrases, words, or situations together for the purpose of comparison, contrast, or rhetoric.
- Lampshade hanging, a technique used in many forms of fiction to deflect attention from implausible or just plain bad writing by having a character point out how strange or unlikely it is. Once acknowledged in-character, the audience accepts it.
- Leitwortstil, the 'the purposeful repetition of words' in a given literary piece that "usually expresses a motif or theme important to the given story". This dates back to the Arabian Nights.1
- Magic realism, a form particularly popular in Latin America but not limited to that region, in which events are described realistically, but in a magical haze of strange local customs and beliefs. Gabriel García Márquez is a notable author in the style.
- Narrative hook, opening of a story that "hooks" the reader's attention so he or she will keep reading
- Narrative letter
- Overstatement, exaggeration of something, often for the purpose of emphasis (also known as a hyperbole).
- Oxymoron, when two opposite terms are used together .
- Parody, ridicule by imitation, usually humorous, such as MAD Magazine.
- Pastiche, using forms and styles of another author, generally as an affectionate tribute, such as the many stories featuring Sherlock Holmes not written by Arthur Conan Doyle, or much of the Cthulhu Mythos.
- Pathetic fallacy, the reflection of the mood of a character (usually the protagonist) in the atmosphere or inanimate objects. A good example is the storm in William Shakespeare's King Lear, which mirrors Lear's mental deterioration.
- Pathos, or emotional appeal, one of the three modes of persuasion in rhetoric used by the author to inspire pity or sorrow in the reader towards a character; pathos typically does not counterbalance the suffering of the target character with a positive outcome, as in Tragedy.
- Personification, the use of comparative metaphors and similes to give living characteristics to non-living objects.
- Plot twist, a change ("twist") in the direction or expected outcome of the plot of a film or novel.
- Poetic justice, when virtue is ultimately rewarded or vice punished, often in modern literature by an ironic twist of fate intimately related to the character's own conduct.
- Predestination paradox, a paradox of time travel when a time traveler is caught in a loop of events that "predestines" him or her to travel back in time.
- Quibble, one of many plot devices, is an argument that the intended meaning of an agreement holds no legal value, as only the exact verbally specified conditions are those which were agreed upon.
- Repetitive designation, "repeated references to some character or object which appears insignificant when first mentioned but which reappears later to intrude suddenly in the narrative", a technique which dates back to the Arabian Nights.2 See also foreshadowing and Chekhov's gun.
- Self-fulfilling prophecy, a prediction that, in being made, actually causes itself to become true. Early examples include the legend of Oedipus, and the story of Krishna in the Mahabharata. There is also an example of this in Harry Potter.
- Sensory detail or Imagery, sight, sound, taste, touch, smell.
- Side story, a form of narrative that occurs alongside established stories set within a fictional universe. Examples include Mahabharata, Ramayana, Gundam, Doctor Who and The Matrix.
- Story within a story, where a story is told within another story. An early famous example of this is the Arabian Nights. See also frame story.
- Stream of consciousness, a special form of interior monologue characterized by leaps in syntax and punctuation that traces a character's fragmentary thoughts and sensory feelings.
- Symbolism, the applied use of symbols: iconic representations that carry particular conventional meanings.
- Thematic patterning, "the distribution of recurrent thematic concepts and moralistic motifs among the various incidents and frames of a story. In a skillfully crafted tale, thematic patterning may be arranged so as to emphasize the unifying argument or salient idea which disparate events and disparate frames have in common". This technique dates back to the Arabian Nights.1
- Ticking Clock, the threat of impending disaster. Often used in thrillers where salvation and escape are essential elements.
- Tone, the overall attitude that an author appears to hold toward the work—a novel such as Candide makes fun of the sufferings of its characters, while The Sorrows of Young Werther takes its protagonist's suffering very seriously.
- Unreliable narrator, a technique in which the narrator of the story is not sincere or introduces a bias in the way he tells it and possibly misleads the reader, hiding or minimizing some events, characters or motivations.
- Word play, when the nature of the words used becomes an aspect of the work.
- Writer's voice, a combination of the various structural aspects of an author's writing style.
Note: In the context of a play literary devices are referred to as dramatic devices which are used to add interest and tension.
See also
See also figure of speech (such as alliteration, simile, metaphor, metonymy), that is a use of words or phrases that departs from straightforward, literal language. Figures of speech are often used and crafted for emphasis, freshness of expression, or clarity. However, clarity may also suffer from their use. Many poems, short stories, and novels use figures of speech.
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