Roman triumph 

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A Roman triumph (triumphus, Old Latin triumpus, attested as the exclamation TRIVMPE in the Carmen Arvale; via Etruscan from the Greek θρίαμβος) was a civil ceremony and religious rite of ancient Rome, held to publicly honour the military commander (dux) of a notably successful foreign war or campaign and to display the glories of Roman victory. Men who had received this accolade were called triumphators.

Contents

Qualifications for a triumph

In order to receive a triumph, the dux must:

  1. Win a significant victory over a foreign enemy, killing at least 5,000 enemy troops, and earn the title imperator.
  2. Be an elected magistrate with the power of imperium, i.e. a dictator, consul, or a praetor.
  3. Bring the army home, signifying that the war was over and that the army was no longer needed. Of course this only applied to the Republican era when the army was a citizen army. By the imperial period, when the army was professional, the proper triumph was reserved for the emperor and his family. If a general was awarded a triumph by the emperor, he would march with a token number of his troops.
  4. In the Republican period, the senate had to give approval for a triumph based on the above mentioned requirements.

The last requirement sometimes led to deserving men being denied triumphs, or triumphs being granted on dubious grounds. It should also be noted that the enemy had to be foreign. Internal conflicts, in theory, did not merit triumphs. The enemy also had to be of equal status. Defeating a slave revolt was not a cause for triumph. Often an ovation was granted for a successful campaign which did not meet the requirements of a full triumph. After the establishment of the Principate, only members of the Imperial family were awarded with triumphs. Other citizens were awarded with Ornamenta triumphalia (triumphal regalia), so that the Imperial family could better keep hold on avenues to power and advancement.

Triumphal progression

Detail from the Arch of Titus showing his triumph held in 71 for his successful Sack of Jerusalem.

The normal order of the triumphal parade was:

  1. The Senate, headed by the magistrates without their lictors.
  2. Trumpeters
  3. Carts with the spoils of war to demonstrate the concrete benefits of the victory
  4. White bulls for sacrifice
  5. The arms and insignia of the leaders of the conquered enemy
  6. The enemy leaders themselves, with their relatives and other captives
  7. The lictors of the imperator, their fasces wreathed with laurel
  8. The imperator himself, in a chariot drawn by two (later four) horses
  9. The adult sons and officers of the imperator
  10. The army without weapons or armour (since the procession would take them inside the pomerium), but clad in togas and wearing wreaths. During the later periods, only a selected company of soldiers would follow the commander in the triumph.

The imperator may possibly have had his face painted red and wore a corona triumphalis, a tunica palmata and a toga picta. Traditionally it has been believed that was accompanied in his chariot by a slave holding a golden wreath above his head and constantly reminding the commander of his mortality by whispering into his ear. However, this is based on slender and disputed evidence.

The words that the slave is said to have used are not known, but traditional suggestions include "Respica te, hominem te memento" ("Look behind you, remember you are only a man") and "Memento mori" ("Remember (that you are) mortal").

Often the order of triumphal progression was varied by the triumphator by adding exotic animals, musicians and slaves carrying pictures of conquered cities and signs with names of conquered peoples.

Due to the many stages of a triumph listed above, Suetonius claims that the emperor Vespasian regretted his own triumph, because its vast length and slow movement bored him.

The ceremony

The ceremony of the triumph began with the triumphator waiting outside the Servian Walls in the Campus Martius, on the western bank of the Tiber. He would then enter city in his chariot through the Porta Triumphalis, only opened for these occasions. Simultaneously he entered the pomerium and technically surrendered his command. At the gate the triumphator was met by the senate and the magistrates, who would then accompany him.

The parade then proceeded through the streets of Rome along a strict route. From the Porta Triumphalis the progression went along the Via Triumphalis (which centuries later was reopened as the current Via dei Fori Imperiali by Benito Mussolini) to Circus Flaminius and Circus Maximus. Frequently, but not always, the captured enemy ruler or general was taken to the Tullianum and there strangled (this was the fate of Jugurtha and Vercingetorix, though some enemy leaders, such as Zenobia of Palmyra, were spared). Then the triumphator rode to the Forum along the Via Sacra and ascended the Capitoline Hill to the Temple of Iuppiter Capitolinus, the final destination. The route would be lined with cheering crowds who would shower the triumphator with flowers.

At the Capitoline Hill the triumphator sacrificed white bulls to Jupiter. He then entered the temple to offer his wreath to the god as a sign that he had no intentions of becoming the king of Rome. After this, the official part of the ceremony was over. However, unofficial festivities continued, temples were kept open and incense burned at the altars. The soldiers would disperse to the city to celebrate. Often a banquet was served for the citizens in the evening.

To better celebrate the triumph, a monument was sometimes erected. This is the origin of the Arch of Titus and the Arch of Constantine, not far from the Colosseum, or perhaps near a battle site as is the case for the Tropaeum Traiani. Also, the monumental Meta Sudans was erected by the Flavians to mark the point where the triumph route turned from the Via Triumphalis into the Via Sacra and the Forum.

History of triumphs

The origin of the triumphal ceremony is shrouded by antiquity, but perhaps derives from earlier Etruscan rituals. Traditionally, the first triumphator was Romulus. During the approximately 1900 years of the history from the beginnings of the Roman Republic to the final disappearance of the Eastern Roman Empire about 500 triumphs were celebrated. During the history of the rite it became more and more elaborate. The Roman Emperors could grant themselves triumphs at a whim, and therefore the real meaning and importance faded.

Due to changes in the ritual it is difficult to determine what is a "real" Roman triumph in the late period. Therefore it is also impossible to say who was the last triumphator. The candidates include Emperor Honorius (403) and Flavius Belisarius (ostensibly "sitting in" for Emperor Justinian I), in recognition for his victory over the Vandals. It was held in Constantinople in 534.

See also

External links

References


Ancient sources

Modern works

Abbreviations.
RE. Real-Encyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, edited by Pauly, Wissowa, Kroll
OCD2. The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd edition (Oxford University Press, 1970)
JRS. Journal of Roman Studies

Major studies.

Shorter articles.