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Depiction of the royal couple in a twelfth-century manuscript

The Song of Songs (Hebrew title שיר השירים, Shir ha-Shirim), is a book of the Hebrew Bible—Tanakh or Old Testament—one of the five megillot (scrolls). It is also known as the Song of Solomon or as Canticles, the latter from the shortened and anglicized Vulgate title Canticum Canticorum, "Song of Songs" in Latin.¹ It is known as Aisma in the Septuagint, which is short for ῏Αισμα ᾀσμάτων, Aisma aismatôn, "Song of Songs" in Greek.²

The Song of Songs is thought by some to be an allegorical representation of the relationship of God and Israel as husband and wife.³ Literally, however, the main characters of the Song are simply a woman and a man, and the poem suggests movement from courtship to consummation. It is one of the shortest books in the Bible, consisting of only 117 verses. According to Ashkenazi tradition, it is read on the Sabbath that falls during the intermediate days of Passover. In the Sephardi Jewish community it is recited every Friday night.

Title

The name of the book comes from the first verse, "The Song of songs, which is Solomon's."

"Song of songs" is a Hebrew grammatical construction denoting the superlative; that is, the title attests to the greatness of the song, similar to "the lord of lords", "the king of kings" or "holy of holies" (used of the inner sanctuary of the Jerusalem temple). Rabbi Akiba declared, "Heaven forbid that any man in Israel ever disputed that the Song of Songs is holy. For the whole world is not worth the day on which the Song of Songs was given to Israel, for all the Writings are holy and the Song of Songs is holy of holies." (Mishnah Yadayim 3:5). Similarly, Martin Luther called it das Hohelied (the high song). This is still its name in German, Swedish and in Dutch.

Some interpret the Hebrew construction differently, a song of several songs, and argue for a degree of independence between sections within the Song.^who?

Authorship

Some people translate the first clause of the title as "which is of Solomon," meaning that the book is authored by Solomon. Rabbi Hiyya the Great said Solomon first wrote Proverbs, then The Song of Songs, and afterward Ecclesiastes. Rabbi Jonathan said Solomon first wrote The Song of Songs, then Proverbs, then Ecclesiastes. The Talmud, however, states the order of the canon, listing Proverbs first, then Ecclesiastes, and then The Song of Songs.

Others translate the first clause as "which is for Solomon," meaning that the book is dedicated to Solomon.^who? It was common practice in ancient times for an anonymous writer seeking recognition for his work to write eponymously in the name of someone more famous. Some read the book as contrasting the nobility of monogamous love with the debased nature of promiscuous love, and suggest that the book is actually a veiled criticism of Solomon, who, according to 1 Kings 11:3, had seven hundred wives and three hundred concubines.

Another approach to the authorship is that offered by Rashi, consistent with allegorical interpretations, rendering the narrator "he to whom peace belongs", i.e: God. The Hebrew name of Solomon, Shlomo, can also be inflected to mean the constructed form of the noun shalom, peace, which through noun declension can be possessive. This means that the author is in fact Solomon, but he narrates the book from the perspective of God, who is conversing with the Jewish people, his allegorical bride.

Characters

The text, read without allegory as a celebration of sexual love, alternates between the speeches of a woman and her lover. A series of antiphonal remarks are provided by the "daughters of Jerusalem." The woman's brothers have a few lines near the conclusion of the Song. Most scholars also see some verses as the voice of a narrator.

Views vary regarding authorship and composition of the Song. Some^who? have suggested the Song is composed from a collection of originally more independent poetry.

Interpretation and use

Although it is commonly held that an allegorical interpretation justified its inclusion in the Biblical canon, scholarly discussion hasn't reached any consensus yet on the Song of Songs and leaves other possibilities open.⁴

Jewish tradition

According to Jewish tradition in the Midrash and the Targum, the book is an allegory of God's love for the Children of Israel. In keeping with this understanding, it is read by Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews on Sabbath eve, to symbolize the love between the Jewish People and God that is also represented by Sabbath. Most traditional Jews also read the Song on the Sabbath of Chol HaMoed of Passover, or on the seventh day of the holiday, when the Song of the sea is also read.

Kabbalah

The Song of Songs is perhaps the most important Biblical text to the Kabbalah. Following the writing and dissemination of the Book of the Zohar in the 14th and 15th centuries, Jewish mysticism took on a strongly erotic element, and the Song of Songs came to be regarded almost as a type of sacred pornography. In Zoharic Kabbalah, God is represented by a system of ten sephirot, or spheres, each symbolizing a different aspect of God, who is perceived as both male and female. The Shechina, or indwelling of God on earth, was identified with the sephira Malchut, which is female in essence, and symbolizes both the Jewish people and the female sexual organs. Malchut was, in turn, identified with the woman in the Song of Songs. Her beloved was identified with the sephira Yesod, which represents God's foundation and the phallus or male essence. The text thus became a description of an act of divine eroticism, symbolizing--depending on the interpreter--the creation of the world, the passage of the Sabbath, the covenant with Israel, or the coming of the Messianic age. "Lecha Dodi" a 16th century liturgical song with strong Kabbalistic and messianic symbolism, contains many passages, including its opening words, taken directly from the Song of Songs.

Christian tradition

The Song of Songs is not directly quoted by New Testament writers, but is possibly alluded to on a number of occasions.^{citation needed}

In a Christian tradition that began with Origen, the Song is regarded as an allegory of the relationship of Christ and the Church, or else Christ and the individual believer (see the Sermons on the Song of Songs by Bernard of Clairvaux which is the outcome of abundant patristic and early medieval commentary).^{citation needed} This type of allegorical interpretation was applied later to even passing details in parables of Jesus.

Pope Benedict XVI's encyclical Deus Caritas Est (God is Love) of 2006 refers to the Song of Songs in both its literal and allegorical meaning, stating that erotic love (eros) and self-donating love (agape) is shown there as the two halves of true love, which is both giving and receiving.⁵

Messianic interpretation

It has been suggested that the book is a messianic text,⁶ in that the lover can be interpreted as the Messiah. It could refer to the Messiah because it often speaks of the Davidic king, Solomon. Nathan’s prophecy in 2 Samuel 7 showed that the promised Messiah would issue from the progeny of David. Each Davidic king was viewed as a potential Messiah, so the Song’s speaking of the Temple-builder Solomon would bring to readers’ minds their Messianic hopes.⁷ When the Song references “mighty men” (3:7), it brings to mind David and his mighty men (2 Samuel 23). Describing the lover as “ruddy” (5:10) again brings to mind David (c.f. 1 Samuel 16:12). The Aramaic Jewish targums also interpreted the lover as the awaited Messiah.⁸ All these references to kingship, to shepherding, to David, and to Solomon, bring to mind the expected Messiah.

In the New Testament, Jesus later claimed his identity as Messiah when he presented himself as greater than Solomon (Matthew 12:42) because, as the builder of the Temple, Solomon was an “obvious messianic model”.⁹

The king's garden (for example 5:1) can be viewed in the light of the Garden of Eden (Genesis 2:8-25),¹⁰ bringing to mind the Messiah who was expected to restore Israel to an Edenic state. The lovers are portrayed as having overcome the alienation produced by the Fall. The state of woman whose “desire shall be for your husband” (Genesis 3:16) has even been reversed: “his desire is for me” (7:10).¹¹

Other interpretations

Historians have noted that the Song of Songs closely resembles the Egyptian love poetry of its time.¹²

Feminist theologians have interpreted the Song of Songs as a positive representation of sexuality and egalitarian gender relations within the Bible.¹³

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the largest denomination in the Latter Day Saint movement, does not recognize the book as authoritative,¹⁴ although it is included in the Church's canon and printed in Church-published copies of the Bible.

References in art, literature and music

• Song of Solomon - 1997 novel by Toni Morrison.
• Black Madonnas illustrate a line in the Song of Songs 1:5: "I am black, but beautiful, O daughters of Jerusalem ..." This is inscribed in Latin on some: Nigra sum sed formosa.
• J.S. Bach's Cantata No. 140, while mainly based on the Parable of the Ten Virgins, also uses words and imagery from the Song of Songs.¹⁵
• La Sulamite by Emmanuel Chabrier, with words by Jean Richepin is based on the Song of Songs.
• Karen Young made an album, with the Latin title of this book, Canticum Canticorum (also known as Oratorio), with twenty songs drawn from the whole book. The choreography from Canadian dancer Gioconda Barbuto based on this album was captured on film by Pepita Ferrari.
• In the Jehovah's Witness song book, song number eleven is entitled "The Shullamite Remnant" and is based on the Song of Songs, quoting some of the verses verbatim, including Song of Songs 8:6, 7.
• Kate Bush wrote a song called The Song Of Solomon, containing lines from the book, which appears on her 1993 album The Red Shoes.
• Gothic rock band Christian Death on their 1987 LP "The Scriptures" featured a track entitled "Song of Songs" which is almost a literal translation of the book in modern English.
• Israeli musician Idan Raichel wrote a song, called Hinach Yaffa, which is largely based on the Song of Songs.
• Flos Campi by the English composer Ralph Vaughan-Williams is based on the book.
• Sinéad O'Connor’s ”Dark I Am Yet Lovely” on Theology (2007) is a treatment of the Song.
• The text of Daniel Pinkham's Wedding Cantata is taken from the Song of Songs.
• Leeds band Pale Saints recorded a song called Song of Solomon on their 1994 album Slow Buildings.
• Birmingham singer Stephen Duffy had a hit song Kiss Me whose refrain was a rewording of lines from the first chapter of the Song of Songs ("Kiss me with your mouth/your love is better than wine").
• Brion Gysin used the King James translation of the Songs of Songs in the cut-up poem The Poem of Poems (1958-1961)
• In Geoffrey Chaucer's, 'The Canterbury Tales', there are numerous references. The most notable of these is in The Miller's Tale in Absolon's attempted wooing of Alisoun.
• Eliza Gilkyson has set lines from chapter 2 to original music and recorded it as "Rose of Sharon" on her Redemption Road CD (1996).
• Robert Burns's poem "The Bonniest Lass" from the collection The Merry Muses of Caledonia refers to it as "the smuttiest sang that e'er was sung".

References in film

• Nammukku paarkkaan munthiri thoppukal, a Malayalam (from Kerala, India) movie, has its title based on the Song of Songs;Chapter 7:12.
• The Wisdom of Crocodiles, (a.k.a. Immortality), paraphrases Song of Songs 3:6 & 4:3,5,7.
• The Woman in the Window (1944), Professor Richard Wanley pulls this book off a shelf in the gentleman's club and sits to read it after his friends leave early in the film.
• Keeping Mum (2005) features selected phrases.
• In Miller's Crossing (1990), Tom Reagen mentioned it sarcastically to Verna Bernbaum.
• In El crimen del Padre Amaro (The Crime of Father Amaro) (2002), a Mexican film (script by Vicente Leñero, based on the homonymus novel written in 1875 by José Maria de Eça de Queiroz) about a love relationship between a priest and a woman, father Amaro recites it to his secret lover.
• In Once Upon a Time in America (1984), a Sergio Leone film, Deborah Gelly (Elizabeth McGovern) recites it to 'Noodles' (Robert DeNiro).

See also

• 4Q106, 4Q107, 4Q108, 6Q6 (portions of Song in Dead Sea Scrolls)
• Hortus conclusus
• Rose of Sharon

References

External links

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Song of Solomon

Jewish translations and commentary:

• Shir Hashirim - Song of Songs - Job (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org
• Jewish Encyclopedia: Song of Songs

Christian translations and commentary:

• Online Bible at GospelHall.org
• Song of Songs at Bible Gateway (various versions)
• Catholic Encyclopedia
• Summary Interpretation of the Song of Solomon by H. Speckard
• wikible:Song of Songs at Wikible.org

Literature

• Garrett, Duane A. Song of Songs. Word Biblical Commentary 23B. Nashville: Nelson, 2004.
• Linafelt, Tod. "Biblical Love Poetry (...and God)". Journal of the American Academy of Religion 70 (2) 2002.
• Pope, Marvin H. Song of Songs: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. Anchor Bible 7C. 2 volumes. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1977.
• Theo Kobusch, Metaphysik, C. Metaphysik als Exegese des Hohenliedes, in Der Neue Pauly, Band 15, La-Ot, Stuttgart Weimar 2001.

Recording

Canticum Canticorum. Eloge De L'amour. La Cantique Des Cantiques à la Renaissance, Capilla Flamenca, 2004 (Eufoda 1359).

This article incorporates text from the public domain Easton's Bible Dictionary, originally published in 1897.